want a easy, partaking, and scalable methodology for presenting geospatial knowledge, they typically flip to a heatmap. This 2D visualization divides a map into equal-sized grid cells and makes use of colour to signify the magnitude of aggregated knowledge values throughout the cells.
Overlaying heatmaps on geographical maps permits fast visualization of spatial phenomena. Patterns akin to clusters, hotspots, outliers, or gradients turn into instantly apparent. This format might be helpful to decision-makers and the general public, who won’t be well-versed in uncooked statistical outputs.
Heatmaps could also be composed of sq. cells (known as grid-based or matrix heatmaps) or easily contoured “steady” values (known as spatial or kernel density heatmaps). The next maps present the density of twister beginning areas utilizing each approaches.
For those who squint your eyes whereas trying on the high map, you must see tendencies just like these within the backside map.
I choose grid-based heatmaps as a result of the sharp, distinct boundaries make it simpler to match the values of adjoining cells, and outliers don’t get “smoothed away.” I even have a mushy spot for his or her pixelated look as my first video video games had been Pong and Wolfenstein 3D.
As well as, kernel density heatmaps might be computationally costly and delicate to the enter parameters. Their look is very depending on the chosen kernel perform and its bandwidth or radius. A poor parameterization selection can both over-smooth or under-smooth the info, obscuring patterns.
On this Fast Success Knowledge Science venture, we’ll use Python to make static, grid-based heatmaps for twister exercise within the continental United States.
The Dataset
For this tutorial, we’ll use twister knowledge from the Nationwide Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s fantastic public-domain database. Extending again to 1950, it covers twister beginning and ending areas, magnitudes, accidents, fatalities, monetary prices, and extra.
The info is accessible via NOAA’s Storm Prediction Middle. The CSV-format dataset, highlighted yellow within the following determine, covers the interval 1950 to 2023. Don’t hassle downloading it. For comfort, I’ve supplied a hyperlink within the code to entry it programmatically.
This CSV file incorporates 29 columns for nearly 69,000 tornadoes. You’ll find a key to the column names right here. We’ll work primarily with the twister beginning areas (slat, slon), the 12 months (yr), and the storm magnitudes (magazine).
Putting in Libraries
You’ll need to set up NumPy, Matplotlib, pandas, and GeoPandas. The earlier hyperlinks present set up directions. We’ll additionally use the Shapely library, which is a part of the GeoPandas set up.
For reference, this venture used the next variations:
python 3.10.18
numpy 2.2.5
matplotlib 3.10.0
pandas 2.2.3
geopandas 1.0.1
shapely 2.0.6
The Simplified Code
It doesn’t take a variety of code to overlay a heatmap on a geographical map. The next code illustrates the essential course of, though a lot of it serves ancillary functions, akin to limiting the US knowledge to the Decrease 48 states and bettering the look of the colorbar.
Within the subsequent part, we’ll refactor and increase this code to carry out extra filtering, make use of extra configuration constants for straightforward updates, and use helper features for readability.
# --- Plotting ---
print("Plotting outcomes...")
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=FIGURE_SIZE)
fig.subplots_adjust(high=0.85) # Make room for titles.
# Plot state boundaries and heatmap:
clipped_states.plot(ax=ax, colour='none',
edgecolor='white', linewidth=1)
vmax = np.max(heatmap)
img = ax.imshow(heatmap.T,
extent=[x_edges[0], x_edges[-1],
y_edges[0], y_edges[-1]],
origin='decrease',
cmap=cmap, norm=norm,
alpha=1.0, vmin=0, vmax=vmax)
# Annotations:
plt.textual content(TITLE_X, TITLE_Y, 'Twister Density Heatmap',
fontsize=22, fontweight='daring', ha='left')
plt.textual content(x=SUBTITLE_X, y=SUBTITLE_Y, s=(
f'{START_YEAR}–{END_YEAR} EF Magnitude 3–5 '
f'{GRID_SIZE_MILES}×{GRID_SIZE_MILES} mile cells'),
fontsize=15, ha='left')
plt.textual content(x=SOURCE_X, y=SOURCE_Y,
s='Knowledge Supply: NOAA Storm Prediction Middle',
colour='white', fontsize=11,
fontstyle='italic', ha='left')
# Clear up the axes:
ax.set_xlabel('')
ax.set_ylabel('')
ax.axis('off')
# Publish the Colorbar:
ticks = np.linspace(0, vmax, 6, dtype=int)
cbar = plt.colorbar(img, ax=ax, shrink=0.6, ticks=ticks)
cbar.set_label('nTornado Rely per Grid Cell', fontsize=15)
cbar.ax.set_yticklabels(listing(map(str, ticks)))
print(f"Saving plot as '{SAVE_FILENAME}'...")
plt.savefig(SAVE_FILENAME, bbox_inches='tight', dpi=SAVE_DPI)
print("Plot saved.n")
plt.present()
Right here’s the consequence:
The Expanded Code
The next Python code was written in JupyterLab and is described by cell.
Importing Libraries / Assigning Constants
After importing the required libraries, we outline a sequence of configuration constants that permit us to simply alter the filter standards, map boundaries, plot dimensions, and extra. For this evaluation, we concentrate on tornadoes throughout the contiguous United States, filtering out states and territories exterior this space and deciding on solely vital occasions (these rated EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) from the entire dataset spanning 1950 to 2023. The outcomes are aggregated to 50×50-mile grid cells.
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import pandas as pd
import geopandas as gpd
import numpy as np
from shapely.geometry import field
# --- Configuration Constants ---
# Knowledge URLs:
TORNADO_DATA_URL = 'https://bit.ly/40xJCMK'
STATES_DATA_URL = ("https://www2.census.gov/geo/tiger/TIGER2020/STATE/"
"tl_2020_us_state.zip")
# Geographic Filtering:
EXCLUDED_STATES_ABBR = ['AK', 'HI', 'PR', 'VI']
TORNADO_MAGNITUDE_FILTER = [3, 4, 5]
# 12 months Filtering (inclusive):
START_YEAR = 1950
END_YEAR = 2023
# Coordinate Reference Techniques (CRS):
CRS_LAT_LON = "EPSG:4326" # WGS 84 geographic CRS (lat/lon)
CRS_ALBERS_EQUAL_AREA = "EPSG:5070" # NAD83/Conus Albers (projected CRS in m)
# Field for Contiguous US (CONUS) in Albers Equal Space (EPSG:5070 meters):
CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_X = -2500000
CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_Y = 100000
CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_X = 2500000
CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_Y = 3200000
# Grid Parameters for Heatmap (50x50 mile cells):
GRID_SIZE_MILES = 50
HEATMAP_GRID_SIZE = 80500 # ~50 miles in meters.
# Plotting Configuration:
FIGURE_SIZE = (15, 12)
SAVE_DPI = 600
SAVE_FILENAME = 'tornado_heatmap.png'
# Annotation positions (in EPSG:5070 meters, relative to plot extent):
TITLE_X = CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_X
TITLE_Y = CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_Y + 250000 # Offset above max Y
SUBTITLE_X = CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_X
SUBTITLE_Y = CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_Y + 100000 # Offset above max Y
SOURCE_X = CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_X + 50000 # Barely indented from min X
SOURCE_Y = CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_Y + 20000 # Barely above min Y
Defining Helper Features
The subsequent cell defines two helper features for loading and filtering the dataset and for loading and filtering the state boundaries. Observe that we name on earlier configuration constants in the course of the course of.
# --- Helper Features ---
def load_and_filter_tornado_data():
"""Load knowledge, apply filters, and create a GeoDataFrame."""
print("Loading and filtering twister knowledge...")
df_raw = pd.read_csv(TORNADO_DATA_URL)
# Mix filtering steps into one chained operation:
masks = (~df_raw['st'].isin(EXCLUDED_STATES_ABBR) &
df_raw['mag'].isin(TORNADO_MAGNITUDE_FILTER) &
(df_raw['yr'] >= START_YEAR) & (df_raw['yr'] <= END_YEAR))
df = df_raw[mask].copy()
# Create and venture a GeoDataFrame:
geometry = gpd.points_from_xy(df['slon'], df['slat'],
crs=CRS_LAT_LON)
temp_gdf = gpd.GeoDataFrame(df, geometry=geometry).to_crs(
CRS_ALBERS_EQUAL_AREA)
return temp_gdf
def load_and_filter_states():
"""Load US state boundaries and filter for CONUS."""
print("Loading state boundary knowledge...")
states_temp_gdf = gpd.read_file(STATES_DATA_URL)
states_temp_gdf = (states_temp_gdf[~states_temp_gdf['STUSPS']
.isin(EXCLUDED_STATES_ABBR)].copy())
states_temp_gdf = states_temp_gdf.to_crs(CRS_ALBERS_EQUAL_AREA)
return states_temp_gdf
Observe that the tilde (~) in entrance of the masks and states_temp_gdf expressions inverts the outcomes, so we choose rows the place the state abbreviation is not within the excluded listing.
Operating Helper Features and Producing the Heatmap
The next cell calls the helper features to load and filter the dataset after which clip the info to the map boundaries, generate the heatmap (with the NumPy histogram2d() methodology), and outline a steady colormap for the heatmap. Observe that we once more name on earlier configuration constants in the course of the course of.
# --- Knowledge Loading and Preprocessing ---
gdf = load_and_filter_tornado_data()
states_gdf = load_and_filter_states()
# Create bounding field and clip state boundaries & twister factors:
conus_bounds_box = field(CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_X, CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_Y,
CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_X, CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_Y)
clipped_states = gpd.clip(states_gdf, conus_bounds_box)
gdf = gdf[gdf.geometry.within(conus_bounds_box)].copy()
# --- Heatmap Technology ---
print("Producing heatmap bins...")
x_bins = np.arange(CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_X, CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_X +
HEATMAP_GRID_SIZE, HEATMAP_GRID_SIZE)
y_bins = np.arange(CONUS_BOUNDS_MIN_Y, CONUS_BOUNDS_MAX_Y +
HEATMAP_GRID_SIZE, HEATMAP_GRID_SIZE)
print("Computing 2D histogram...")
heatmap, x_edges, y_edges = np.histogram2d(gdf.geometry.x,
gdf.geometry.y,
bins=[x_bins, y_bins])
# Outline steady colormap (e.g., 'scorching', 'viridis', 'plasma', and many others.):
print("Defining steady colormap...")
cmap = plt.cm.scorching
norm = None
print("Completed execution.")
As a result of this course of can take a couple of seconds, the print() perform retains us up-to-date on this system’s progress:
Loading and filtering twister knowledge...
Loading state boundary knowledge...
Producing heatmap bins...
Computing 2D histogram...
Defining steady colormap...
Completed execution.Plotting the Outcomes
The ultimate cell generates and saves the plot. Matplotlib’s imshow() methodology is chargeable for plotting the heatmap. For extra on imshow(), see this article.
# --- Plotting ---
print("Plotting outcomes...")
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=FIGURE_SIZE)
fig.subplots_adjust(high=0.85) # Make room for titles.
# Plot state boundaries and heatmap:
clipped_states.plot(ax=ax, colour='none',
edgecolor='white', linewidth=1)
vmax = np.max(heatmap)
img = ax.imshow(heatmap.T,
extent=[x_edges[0], x_edges[-1],
y_edges[0], y_edges[-1]],
origin='decrease',
cmap=cmap, norm=norm,
alpha=1.0, vmin=0, vmax=vmax)
# Annotations:
plt.textual content(TITLE_X, TITLE_Y, 'Twister Density Heatmap',
fontsize=22, fontweight='daring', ha='left')
plt.textual content(x=SUBTITLE_X, y=SUBTITLE_Y, s=(
f'{START_YEAR}–{END_YEAR} EF Magnitude 3–5 '
f'{GRID_SIZE_MILES}×{GRID_SIZE_MILES} mile cells'),
fontsize=15, ha='left')
plt.textual content(x=SOURCE_X, y=SOURCE_Y,
s='Knowledge Supply: NOAA Storm Prediction Middle',
colour='white', fontsize=11,
fontstyle='italic', ha='left')
# Clear up the axes:
ax.set_xlabel('')
ax.set_ylabel('')
ax.axis('off')
# Publish the Colorbar:
ticks = np.linspace(0, vmax, 6, dtype=int)
cbar = plt.colorbar(img, ax=ax, shrink=0.6, ticks=ticks)
cbar.set_label('nTornado Rely per Grid Cell', fontsize=15)
cbar.ax.set_yticklabels(listing(map(str, ticks)))
print(f"Saving plot as '{SAVE_FILENAME}'...")
plt.savefig(SAVE_FILENAME, bbox_inches='tight', dpi=SAVE_DPI)
print("Plot saved.n")
plt.present()This produces the next map:
It is a lovely map and extra informative than a {smooth} KDE different.
Including Twister Ending Places
Our twister density heatmaps are primarily based on the beginning areas of tornadoes. However tornadoes transfer after touching down. The typical twister monitor is about 3 miles lengthy, however once you take a look at stronger storms, the numbers enhance. EF‑3 tornadoes common 18 miles, and EF‑4 tornadoes common 27 miles. Lengthy-track tornadoes are uncommon, nonetheless, comprising lower than 2% of all tornadoes.
As a result of the typical twister monitor size is lower than the 50-mile dimension of our grid cells, we are able to count on them to cowl just one or two cells typically. Thus, together with the twister ending location ought to assist us enhance our density measurement.
To do that, we’ll want to mix the beginning and ending lat-lon areas and filter out endpoints that share the identical cell as their corresponding beginning factors. In any other case, we’ll “double-dip” when counting. The code for it is a bit lengthy, so I’ve saved it on this Gist.
Right here’s a comparability of the “begin solely” map with the mixed beginning and ending areas:
The prevailing winds drive most tornadoes towards the east and northeast. You’ll be able to see the influence in states like Missouri, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee. These areas have brighter cells within the backside map resulting from tornadoes beginning in a single cell and ending within the adjoining easterly cell. Observe additionally that the utmost variety of tornadoes in a given cell has elevated from 29 (within the higher map) to 33 (within the backside map).
Recap
We used Python, pandas, GeoPandas, and Matplotlib to venture and overlay heatmaps onto geographical maps. Geospatial heatmaps are a extremely efficient solution to visualize regional tendencies, patterns, hotspots, and outliers in statistical knowledge.
For those who get pleasure from some of these initiatives, you should definitely take a look at my ebook, Actual World Python: A Hacker’s Information to Fixing Issues with Code, accessible in bookstores and on-line.
